HUMAN–COMPUTER INTERACTION:SOCIAL, ORGANIZATIONAL, AND MANAGEMENT FACTORS

SOCIAL, ORGANIZATIONAL, AND MANAGEMENT FACTORS

Social, organizational, and management factors related to human–computer interaction may influence a range of outcomes at both the individual and organizational levels: stress, physical and mental health, safety, job satisfaction, motivation, and performance. Campion and Thayer (1985) showed that some of these outcomes may be conflicting. In a study of 121 blue-collar jobs, they found that enriched jobs led to higher job satisfaction but lower efficiency and reliability. The correlations between efficiency on one hand and job satisfaction and comfort on the other hand were negative. Another way of looking at all the outcomes has been proposed by Smith and Sainfort (1989). The objective of the proposed balance theory is to achieve an optimal balance among positive and negative aspects of the work system, including the person, task and organizational factors, technology, and physical environment. See Figure 1 for a model of the work system. The focus is not on a limited range of variables or aspects of the work system but on a holistic approach to the study and design of work systems. In this section we will focus on how social, organizational and management factors related to human–computer interaction influence both individual and organizational outcomes.

Social Environment

The introduction of computer technology into workplaces may change the social environment and social relationships. Interactive systems become a new element of the social environment, a new communication medium, and a new source of information. With new computer technologies there may be a shift from face-to-face interaction toward computer-mediated communication, or at least a change in how people communicate and interact. This shift may be most obvious with electronic mail and teleconferencing systems. A study of Eveland and Bikson (1988) on electronic mail shows that people connected to a network of microcomputers with electronic mail relied more on scheduled meetings than people with conventional office support, who relied more on unscheduled meetings. The impact on face-to-face interaction was not studied. A study of electronic mail by Rice and Case (1983) did not find any reduction in face-to-face interaction, but increased communications as a result of using electronic mail. Computers seem to be just another way of communicating with coworkers, subordinates, and supervisors (Rice and Case 1983). However, other studies have found that there was not only a change in quantity of communications (more or new information to and from more or new recipients), but also a change in quality of communications (Kiesler et al. (1984).

Aydin (1989) showed that the use of medical information systems for communicating physicians’ medication orders from the nursing department to the pharmacy led to increased interdependence between the two departments. The change in work organization (increased interdependence) was accompanied by changes in the social environment: communication and cooperation between the two departments improved, leading to better working relationships.

Computer technologies also allow work to be performed at remote distances. Recently there has been an increase in home-based work due to technological advances in computer and network tech- nologies. Telework or working at home is most common for clerical workers performing routine transactions and for autonomous professionals (e.g., writers, designers) (Sproull and Kiesler 1991). In general, home-based work increases social isolation from coworkers and supervisors. This not only reduces opportunities to socialize and make friends but also reduces chances for advancement

and promotion (OTA 1985). On the other hand, home-based work allows workers to spend more time with their family and friends, thus increasing social support from family and friends. Telework allows for increased control over work pace and variability of workload. It has been found, however, that electronic communication and telework have led to feelings of not being able to get away from work and to the augmentation (rather than substitution) of regular office hours (Sproull and Kiesler 1991; Phizacklea and Wolkowitz 1995). In addition, increased distractions and interruptions may disrupt work rhythm (OTA 1985). From a social point of view, home-based work has both negative and positive effects.

Another important social factor is intragroup relationships and relationships with coworkers. The role of computer technologies in influencing intragroup functioning is multidimensional. If workers spend a lot of time working in isolation at a computer workstation, they may have less opportunity for socialization. This may affect the group performance, especially if tasks are interdependent. On the other hand, intragroup relationships may be improved if workers gain access to better information and have adequate resources to use computers. The positive or negative effects may also vary across jobs and organizations. And they may depend on the characteristics of the interactive system (e.g., single- vs. multiple-user computer workstation).

Aronsson (1989) found that work group cohesion and possibilities for contacts with coworkers and supervisors had become worse among low-level jobs (e.g., secretary, data-entry operator, planner, office service) but had not been affected among medium- to high-level jobs. Changes in job design were related to changes in social relationships. The higher the change in intensity demands, the lower the work group cohesion and the possibilities for contacts with coworkers and supervisors. That is, increase in workload demands came along with worsening of the social environment. The negative effect was more pronounced among low-level jobs, presumably because higher-level job holders have more resources, such as knowledge, power, and access to information and can have a say in the implementation / design process as well as more control over their job.

Access to organizational resources and expertise is another important facet of the social environ- ment for computer users. Technology can break down or malfunction, and users may need help to perform certain tasks or to learn new software. In these situations, access to organizational resources and expertise is critical for the end users, especially when they are highly dependent on the computer technology to perform their job or when they use the technology in their contact with customers. Danziger et al. (1993) have studied the factors that determine the quality of end-user computing services in a survey of 1869 employees in local governments. Three categories of factors were identified that might influence the quality of computing services: (1) the structure of service provision (e.g., centralization vs. decentralization), (2) the level of technological problems, and (3) the service orientation of computing service specialists. The results do not provide support for the argument that structural factors are most important; whether computing services are centralized or decentralized within an organization does not explain the perceived quality of computing services.

On the other hand, the results demonstrate the importance of the attitudes of the service providers. Computer specialists who are clearly user oriented, that is, who are communicative and responsive to user needs and are committed to improving existing applications and proposing appropriate new ones, seem best able to satisfy end users’ criteria for higher quality computing services. Researchers emphasize the importance of a positive sociotechnical interface between end users and computing specialists, in addition to good operational performance (e.g., low incidence of technical problems).

The introduction of computers in workplaces can also change how workers interact with their supervisor and management. That change in social interaction may result in changes in social support. Sproull and Kiesler (1988) showed that electronic mail affected social relationships within organi- zations. Status equalization was observed in that messages from subordinates were no different than messages from supervisors. Thus, computer technologies can have positive effects on worker– management relationships because workers have easier access to their supervisors and / or feel less restrained from communicating with their supervisors. However, expectations of rapid service and faster work completion may impose more supervisory pressure on workers (Johansson and Aronsson 1984). This is a negative effect of computer technologies on worker–supervisor relationships. A study by Yang and Carayon (1995) showed that supervisor support was an important buffer against worker stress in both low and high job demands conditions. Two hundred sixty-two computer users of three organizations participated in the study. Supervisor social support was an important buffer against worker stress; however, coworker social support did not affect worker stress.

The social environment can be influenced by computer technologies in various ways: quality, quantity, and means of communications, social isolation, extended network of colleagues, work group cohesion, quality of social interaction among workers, coworkers and supervisors, and social support. Table 10 summarizes the potential effects of computer technologies on the social environment. There are several strategies or interventions that can be applied to counteract the negative influences of computer technology on the social environment and foster positive effects.

Computerized monitoring systems have an important impact on how supervisors interact with their employees. It is natural that when supervisors are suddenly provided with instantaneous, detailed information about individual employee performance, they feels a commitment, in fact an obligation, to use this information to improve the performance of the employees. This use of hard facts in interacting with employees often changes the style of supervision. It puts inordinate emphasis on hourly performance and creates a coercive interaction. This is a critical mistake in a high-technology environment where employee cooperation is essential.

Supervision has to be helpful and supportive if employee motivation is to be maintained and stress is to be avoided. This means that supervisors should not use individual performance data as a basis for interaction. The supervisor should be knowledgeable about the technology and serve as a resource when employees are having problems. If management wants employees to ask for help, the relationship with the supervisor has to be positive (not coercive) so that the employee feels confident enough to ask for help. If employees are constantly criticized, they will shun the supervisor and problem situations that can harm productivity will go unheeded.

Employees are a good source of information about productive ways to work. Their daily contact with the job gives them insight into methods, procedures, bottlenecks, and problems. Many times they modify their individual work methods or behavior to improve their products and rate of output. Often these are unique to the individual job or employee and could not be adopted as a standardized approach or method. If work systems are set up in a rigid way, this compensatory behavior cannot occur. Further, if adverse relationships exist between supervisors and employees, the employees are unlikely to offer their innovative ideas when developers are conducting a contextual task analysis (see Section 3.3). It is in the interest of the employer to allow employees to exercise at least a nominal level of control and decision making over their own task activity. Here again, the computer hardware and software have to be flexible so that individual approaches and input can be accom- modated as long as set standards of productivity are met.

One approach for providing employee control is through employee involvement and participation in making decisions about interactive system design—for instance, by helping management select ergonomic furniture through comparative testing of various products and providing preference data, or being involved in the determination of task allocations for a new job, or voicing opinions about ways to improve the efficiency of their work unit. Participation is a strong motivator to action and a good way to gain employee commitment to a work standard or new technology. Thus, participation can be used as a means of improving the social environment and foster the efficient use of interactive

systems. But participation will only be effective as long as employees see tangible evidence that their input is being considered and used in a way that benefits them.

Employees who make positive contributions to the success of the organization should be rewarded for their efforts. Rewards can be administrative, social, or monetary. Administrative rewards can be such things as extra rest breaks, extended lunch periods, and special parking spaces. They identify the person as someone special and deserving. Another type of reward is social in that it provides special status to the individual. This is best exemplified by the receipt of praise from the supervisor for a job well done. This enhances personal self-esteem. If the praise is given in a group setting, it can enhance peer group esteem toward the individual. Monetary rewards can also be used, but these can be a double-edged sword because they may have to be removed during low-profit periods, and this can lead to employee resentment, thus negating the entire purpose of the reward system. Some organizations use incentive pay systems based on performance data provided by the computers. Computers can be used to keep track of worker performance continuously (Carayon 1993). That quantitative performance data can then be used to set up incentive pay systems that reward good performers. In general, incentive pay systems can lead to increase in output but at the expense of worker health (Levi 1972). Schleifer and Amick (1989) have shown how the use of a computer-based incentive system can lead to an increase in worker stress.

Different ways of improving the social environment in computerized workplaces thus include helpful and supportive managers and supervisors, increased control over one’s job, employee involve- ment and participation, and rewards.

Organizational Factors

The way work is organized changes with the introduction of computer technologies, such as changes in workflow. Computer technologies obviously provide opportunities for reorganizing how work flows and have the potential of increasing efficiency. However, increased worker dependence on the com- puter is a potential problem, especially when the computer breaks down or slows down. It may affect not only performance but also stress. Organizational redesign may be one way of alleviating problems linked to dependence on the computer. Aronsson and Johansson (1987) showed that organizational rearrangement was necessary to decrease workers’ dependence on the computer system by expanding their jobs with new tasks and allowing them to rotate between various tasks.

Given their technical capabilities, computers can be used to bring people closer and make them work in groups. The concept of computer-supported cooperative work is based on the expectation that the computer favors group work. Researchers in this area focus on all aspects of how large and small groups can work together in using computer technology (Greif 1988). They develop interactive systems that facilitate group work and study the social, organizational, and management impacts of computer-supported work groups. For instance, Grief and Sarin (1988) identified data-management requirements of computer group work.

New computer technologies allow work to be performed at a distance. This new work organization has some potential negative and positive effects for workers and management. Benefits for workers include increased control over work schedule and eliminating the commute to work (OTA 1985; Bailyn 1989). Constraints for workers include social isolation, increased direct and indirect costs (e.g., increased heating bill, no health insurance), lack of control over physical environment, and fewer opportunities for promotion (OTA 1985; Bailyn 1989). Benefits for employers include lowered costs (e.g., floor space, direct labor costs, and workers’ benefits), more intensive use of computers (e.g., outside peak hours), increased flexibility (workers can be used when needed), and increased productivity; while problems include change in traditional management and supervision techniques and loss of control (OTA 1985).

Within organizations, the use of computer technologies has been linked to various positive and negative effects on job design (see, e.g., the case study of Buchanan and Boddy 1982). Increased workload, work pressure and demand for concentration, decreased job control, and variety are some of the negative effects (Smith et al. 1981; Buchanan and Boddy 1982; Johansson and Aronsson 1984). Increased feedback, control over one’s job, and career opportunities are some of the positive effects (Buchanan and Boddy 1982). For some, such as professionals, the job-design effects of the use of computer technology may be all positive, while for others, such as clerical workers or data- entry operators, the effects may all be negative (Smith et al. 1981; Sauter et al. 1983; Johansson and Aronsson 1984).

The computer technology itself may have characteristics that can affect worker stress by inducing negative characteristics. For instance, technology characteristics such as breakdown and slowdown may increase perceived workload and work pressure and reduce the amount of control one has over work (Carayon-Sainfort 1992; Asakura and Fujigaki 1993). Carayon-Sainfort (1992) found that com- puter system performance was indirectly related to stress through its effect on perceived workload, work pressure and job control. Specifically, greater frequencies of computer problems were related to increases in perceived workload and work pressure as well as decreases in job control. These can have negative effects on an organization. Asakura and Fujigaki (1993) examined the direct and indirect effects of computerization on worker well being and health in a sample of 4400 office workers. The results of their study paralleled Carayon-Sainfort (1992).

A major complaint of office employees who have undergone computerization is that their work- load has increased substantially. This is most true for clerical employees, who typically have an increased number of transactions to process when computers are introduced into the work routine. This increase in transactions means more keystrokes and more time at the workstation. These can lead to greater physical effort than before and possibly more visual and muscular discomfort. This discomfort reinforces the feeling of increased workload and adds to employee dissatisfaction with the workload.

Quite often the workload of computer users is established by the data-processing department in concert with other staff departments such as human resources and line managers. An important consideration is the cost of the computer equipment and related upkeep such as software and main- tenance. The processing capability of the computer(s) is a second critical element in establishing the total capacity that can be achieved. The technology cost, the capability to process work, and the desired time frame to pay for the technology are factored together to establish a staffing pattern and the required workload for each employee. This approach is based on the capacity of the computer(s) coupled with investment recovery needs and does not necessarily meet the objective of good human resource utilization. Workload should not be based solely on technological capabilities or investment recovery needs but must include important considerations of human capabilities and needs. Factors such as attentional requirements, fatigue, and stress should be taken into account in establishing the workload. A workload that is too great will cause fatigue and stress that can diminish work quality without achieving desired quantity. A workload that is too low will produce boredom and stress and also reduce quality and economic benefits of computerization.

Workload problems are not concerned solely with the immediate level of effort necessary but also deal with the issue of work pressure. This is defined as an unrelenting backlog of work or workload that will never be completed. This situation is much more stressing than a temporary increase in workload to meet a specific crisis. It produces the feeling that things will never get better, only worse. Supervisors have an important role in dealing with work pressure by acting as a buffer between the demands of the employer and the daily activities of the employees. Work pressure is a perceptual problem. If the supervisor deals with daily workload in an orderly way and does not put pressure on the employee about a pile-up of work, then the employee’s perception of pressure will be reduced and the employee will not suffer from work pressure stress.

Work pressure is also related to the rate of work, or work pace. A very fast work pace that requires all of the employee’s resources and skills to keep up will produce work pressure and stress. This is exacerbated when this condition occurs often. An important job-design consideration is to allow the employee to control the pace of the work rather than having this controlled automatically by the computer. This will provide a pressure valve to deal with perceived work pressure.

A primary reason for acquiring new technology is to increase individual employee productivity and provide a competitive edge. Getting more work out of employees means that fewer are needed to do the same amount of work. Often employees feel that this increased output means that they are working harder even though the technology may actually make their work easier. Using scientific methods helps establish the fairness of new work standards.

Once work standards have been established, they can serve as one element in an employee- performance-evaluation scheme. An advantage of computer technology is the ability to have instan- taneous information on individual employee performance in terms of the rate of output. This serves as one objective measure of how hard employees are working. But managers have to understand that this is just one element of employee performance and emphasis on quantity can have an adverse effect on the quality of work. Therefore, a balanced performance-evaluation system will include quality considerations as well. These are not as easy to obtain and are not as instantaneously available as are quantity measures. However, managers must resist the temptation to emphasize quantity mea- sures just because they are readily available. A key consideration in any employee evaluation program is the issue of fairness, just as in workload determination.

Jobs in which people use computer technology may require high mental effort. Some types of computer-mediated tasks may increase information-processing requirements and place great demands on attention, decision making, and memory. Increased levels of cognitive demands due to computer technology have been shown to influence employee stress and health (Lindstrom and Leino 1989; Czaja and Sharit 1993; Yang 1994). Several types of cognitive demands can be generated from the use of computer technology: (1) a great amount of information given in a certain unit of time, (2) abstract information being presented on the screen, and (3) difficult and concurrent tasks being performed at the same time.

Cognitive demands can be increased when the system response time is poor and the nature of workflow is not transparent to the workers. In other words, unpredictable demands and interruptions of workflow caused by system breakdowns may be difficult to deal with because of the disruptive

effect on the cognitive control process. Overall, cognitive demands are associated with job charac- teristics such as intensity of computer work, the type of communication, and high speed / functions of computers. The implementation of computer technology in work organizations can lead to greater demands on cognitive resources in terms of memory, attention, and decision making that may have a negative impact on worker health and work performance. If, however, computer systems have been designed with the cognitive capabilities and limitations of the user in mind (see Section 3), these issues should not occur.

There has been interest in the role of occupational psychosocial stress in the causation and ag- gravation of musculoskeletal disorders for computer users (Smith et al. 1981; Smith 1984; Bammer and Blignault 1988; Smith and Carayon 1995; Hagberg et al. 1995). It has been proposed that work organization factors define ergonomic risks to upper-extremity musculoskeletal problems by speci- fying the nature of the work activities (variety or repetition), the extent of loads, the exposure to loads, the number and duration of actions, ergonomic considerations such as workstation design, tool and equipment design, and environmental features (Smith and Carayon 1995; Carayon et al. 1999). These factors interact as a system to produce an overall load on the person (Smith and Sainfort 1989; Smith and Carayon 1995; Carayon et al. 1999), and this load may lead to an increased risk for upper extremity musculoskeletal problems (Smith and Carayon 1995; Carayon et al. 1999). There are psy- chobiological mechanisms that make a connection between psychological stress and musculoskeletal disorders plausible and likely (Smith and Carayon 1995; Carayon et al. 1999). At the organizational level, the policies and procedures of a company can affect the risk of musculoskeletal disorders through the design of jobs, the length of exposures to stressors, establishing work–rest cycles, defining the extent of work pressures and establishing the psychological climate regarding socialization, career, and job security (Smith et al. 1992; NIOSH 1992, 1993).

Smith et al. (1992), Theorell et al. (1991) and Faucett and Rempel (1994) have demonstrated that some of these organizational features can influence the level of self-reported upper-extremity mus- culoskeletal health complaints. In addition, the organization defines the nature of the task activities (work methods), employee training, availability of assistance, supervisory relations, and workstation design. All of these factors have been shown to influence the risk of upper-extremity musculoskeletal symptoms, in particular among computer users and office workers (Linton and Kamwendo 1989; Smith et al. 1992; Lim et al. 1989; Lim and Carayon. 1995; NIOSH 1990, 1992, 1993; Smith and Carayon 1995).

The amount of esteem and satisfaction an employee gets from work are tied directly to the content of the job. For many jobs, computerization brings about fragmentation and simplification that act to reduce the content of the job. Jobs need to provide an opportunity for skill use, mental stimulation, and adequate physical activity to keep muscles in tone. In addition, work has to be meaningful for the individual. It has to provide for identification with the product and the company. This provides the basis for pride in the job that is accomplished.

Computerization can provide an opportunity for employees to individualize their work. This lets them use their unique skills and abilities to achieve the required standards of output. It provides cognitive stimulation because each employee can develop a strategy to meet his or her goals. This requires that software be flexible enough to accept different types and order of input. Then it is the job of the software to transform the diverse input into the desired product. Usually computer programmers will resist such an approach because it is easier for them to program using standardized input strategies. However, such strategies build repetition and inflexibility into jobs that reduce job content and meaning.

Being able to carry out a complete work activity that has an identifiable end product is an important way to add meaningfulness to a job. When employees understand the fruits of their labor, it provides an element of identification and pride in achievement. This is in contrast to simplifying jobs into elemental tasks that are repeated over and over again. Such simplification removes meaning and job content and creates boredom, job stress, and product-quality problems. New computer systems should emphasize software that allows employees to use existing skills and knowledge to start out. These then can serve as the base for acquiring new skills and knowledge. Job activities should exercise employee mental skills and should also require a sufficient level of physical activity to keep the employee alert and in good muscle tone.

Table 11 summarizes the potential impacts of computer technologies on organizational factors. Overall, the decision about the use or design of interactive systems should include considerations for work load, work pressure, determination of work standards, job content (variety and skill use), and skill development. Computerization holds the promise of providing significant improvements in the quality of jobs, but it also can bring about organizational changes that reduce employee satisfaction and performance and increase stress. Designing interactive systems that meet both the aims of the organization and the needs of employees can be difficult. It requires attention to important aspects of work that contribute to employee self-esteem, satisfaction, motivation, and health and safety.

Management Factors

Consideration of management factors in human–computer interaction is highly relevant in under- standing the global effects of interactive systems (Clement and Gotlieb 1988). The introduction of computer technology is often accompanied by or responsible for changes in management structure. For instance, computer technologies can be used to increase workers’ access to information. That move toward decentralization can lead to more decisions being made at lower levels. There has been a long debate about whether computer technology leads to centralization or decentralization of de- cision making (Attewell and Rule 1984; Blackler 1988). There is no clear answer to this debate: Variables such as organizational size, past experiences, management style, and work force skill level play a role in these structural effects (Attewell and Rule 1984). Furthermore, power may not be a simple zero-sum relationship. Various organizational actors may experience increased power and control opportunities after the implementation of computer technology. Information systems special- ists increase their power because they have valuable expertise and knowledge, and workers may depend on them when a technical problem occurs or when they need additional training. Worker control may also increase when workers are given efficient technologies and are taught new computer skills.

The amount of information and the ease of access to information are important management factors affected by computer technologies. Electronic mail systems tend to change how information flows in organizations. Sproull and Kiesler (1988) found that electronic mail added new recipients to information being circulated and also added new information. However, one could ask about the usefulness and relevancy of the new information for organizational functioning. Information has been identified as a potent source of power (Crozier 1964). Computer technology that changes the type and amount of information available is likely to change the power distribution between various organizational actors, such as workers, supervisors, managers, computer experts, and unions. In ad- dition, the introduction of computer technologies may create new sources of power and increase status differences between computer experts and nonexperts, between heavy computer users and light users.

Computer technologies can be used for increasing management control over production / service processes. Electronic monitoring of worker performance is an example of this effect. Computers are used to get detailed online data on worker performance to, for instance, improve work schedule and planning and increase control over worker performance. This may greatly enhance management capabilities and improve overall organizational effectiveness, but may induce stressful working con- ditions (Carayon 1993).

Smith et al. (1992) conducted a questionnaire survey study examining the differences in stress responses between employees who were electronically monitored while doing computer work and those who were not. Both groups performed the same jobs. The results of the surveys completed by 745 telecommunication employees showed that employees who had their performance electronically monitored perceived more stressful working conditions and more job boredom, psychological tension, anxiety, depression, anger, health complaints, and fatigue. Smith et al. (1992) suggest that the results might have been due to job-design changes associated with the monitoring.

In fact, when Carayon (1994) reanalyzed data from two job categories (255 service representatives and 266 clerks) from Smith et al. (1992), the results supported the proposition that electronic per- formance monitoring had an indirect effect on worker stress through its effects on job design. Carayon (1994) also reported on a second study to specifically examine whether or not electronic performance monitoring had a direct or indirect effect on worker stress. The results revealed that monitored employees reported more supervisor feedback and control over work pace and less job content than nonmonitored employees. There were no differences between the monitored and nonmonitored groups with regard to stress or health.

The process by which computer technologies are implemented is only one of the management factors that affect the effectiveness and acceptance of computer use. Management attitudes toward the implementation of computer technologies are very important insofar as they can affect overall job and organizational design and worker perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs regarding the new tech- nologies (Crozier 1964; Smith 1984; Blackler 1988; Kahn and Cooper 1986). Several models that link the organizational effects of computer systems to the process used to implement those systems have been proposed (Blackler and Brown 1987; Robey 1987; Flynn 1989). They all emphasize the need to identify potential technical and social impacts, advocate general planning, and emphasize the support of workers and managers for successful implementation of new computer technology.

Carayon and Karsh (2000) examined the implementation of one type of computer technology, that is, imaging technology into two organizations in the Midwest. Results showed that imaging users in the organization that utilized end-user participation in the implementation of their imaging system rated their imaging systems better and reported higher job satisfaction than imaging users in the organization that did not incorporate end-user participation in the implementation of the system. Studies by Korunka and his colleagues (Korunka et al. 1993, 1995, 1996) have also demonstrated the benefits of end-user participation in technological change on quality of working life, stress, and health.

Management needs to also consider retraining issues when introducing new computer technology. Kearsley (1989) defined three general effects of computer technology: skill twist (change in required skills), deskilling (reduction in the level of skills required to do a job), and upskilling (increase in the level of required skills). Each of these effects has different implications for retraining. For in- stance, skill twist requires that workers be able and willing to learn new skills. Training or retraining are critical issues for the successful implementation and use of new computer technology. Even more critical is the need for continuous retraining because of rapid changes in hardware and software capabilities of computer technologies (Smith et al. 1981; Smith 1984; Kearsley 1989). Training can serve to enhance employee performance and add new skills. Such growth in skills and knowledge is an important aspect of good job design. No one can remain satisfied with the same job activities over years and years. Training is a way to assist employees in using new technology to its fullest extent and reduce the boredom of the same old job tasks. New technology by its nature will require changes in jobs, and training is an important approach not only for keeping employees current but also in building meaning and content into their jobs.

Computer technologies have the potential to affect both positively and negatively the following management factors: organizational structure (e.g., decentralization vs. centralization), power distri- bution, information flow, and management control over the production process. Management’s strat- egies for implementing new computer technologies are another important management factor to take into account to achieve optimal use of these technologies. Table 12 summarizes the potential impacts of computer technologies on management factors. Some of the negative effects of computers on management factors can be counteracted. The rest of this section proposes various means of ensuring that computerization leads to higher performance and satisfaction and lower stress.

Monitoring employee performance is a vital concern of labor unions and employees. Computers provide greatly enhanced capability to track employee performance, and this will follow from such close monitoring. Monitoring of employee performance is an important process for management. It helps to know how productive your workforce is and where bottlenecks are occurring. It is vital management information that can be used by top management to realign resources and to make important management decisions. However, it is not a good practice to provide individual employee performance information to first-line supervisors; it can lead to a coercive supervision style. To

enhance individual performance, it is helpful to give periodic feedback directly to employees about their own performance. This can be done in a noncoercive way directly by the computer on a daily basis. This will help employees judge their performance and also assist in establishing a supervisory climate that is conducive to satisfied and productive employees.

While computerized monitoring systems can be particularly effective in providing employees with feedback, the misuse of such systems can be particularly counterproductive and cause stress. The following principles contribute to the effective use of computerized monitoring for performance en- hancement and reduced stress:

• Supervisors should not be involved directly in the performance feedback system. Information on the performance that is given by the computerized monitoring system should be directly fed back to the operator.

• Computerized monitoring systems should give a comprehensive picture of the operator’s per- formance (quantity and quality).

• Performance information should not be used for disciplinary purposes.

• Electronic monitoring should not be used for payment purposes such as payment by keystrokes (piece rate) or bonuses for exceeding goals.

Any kind of change in the workplace produces fears in employees. New technology brings with it changes in staff and the way work is done. The fear of the unknown, in this case the new technology, can be a potent stressor. This suggests that a good strategy in introducing new technology is to keep employees well informed of expected changes and how they will affect the workplace. There are many ways to achieve this. One is to provide informational memorandums and bulletins to employees at various stages of the process of decision making about the selection of technology and, during its implementation, on how things are going. These informational outputs have to be at frequent intervals (at least monthly) and need to be straightforward and forthright about the technology and its expected effects. A popular approach being proposed by many organizational design experts is to involve employees in the selection, design, and implementation of the new technology. The benefit of this participation is that employees are kept abreast of current information, employees may have some good ideas that can be beneficial to the design process, and participation in the process builds employee commitment to the use of the technology.

A large employee fear and potent stressor is concern over job loss due to improved efficiency produced by new technology. Many research studies have demonstrated that the anticipation of job loss and not really knowing if you will be one of the losers is much more stressful and more detrimental to employee health than knowing right away about future job loss. Telling those em- ployees who will lose their jobs early provides them with an opportunity to search for a new job while they still have a job. This gives them a better chance to get a new job and more bargaining power regarding salary and other issues. Some employers do not want to let employees know too soon for fear of losing them at an inopportune time. By not being fair and honest to employees who are laid off, employers can adversely influence the attitudes and behavior of those employees who remain.

For those employees who are retained when new technology is acquired, there is the concern that the new technology will deskill their jobs and provide less opportunity to be promoted to a better job. Often the technology flattens the organizational structure, producing similar jobs with equivalent levels of skill use. Thus, there is little chance to be promoted except into a limited number of supervisory positions, which will be less plentiful with the new technology. If this scenario comes true, then employees will suffer from the ‘‘blue-collar blues’’ that have been prevalent in factory jobs. This impacts negatively on performance and stress.

Averting this situation requires a commitment from management to enhancing job design that builds skill use into jobs as well as developing career paths so that employees have something to look forward to besides 30 years at the same job. Career opportunities have to be tailored to the needs of the organization to meet production requirements. Personnel specialists, production man- agers, and employees have to work together to design work systems that give advancement oppor- tunity while utilizing technology effectively and meeting production goals. One effective technique is to develop a number of specialist jobs that require unique skills and training. Workers in these jobs can be paid a premium wage reflecting their unique skills and training. Employees can be promoted from general jobs into specialty jobs. Those already in specialty jobs can be promoted to other, more difficult specialty jobs. Finally, those with enough specialty experience can be promoted into troubleshooting jobs that allow them to rotate among specialties as needed to help make the work process operate smoothly and more productively.

Organizations should take an active role in managing new computer technologies. Knowing more about the positive and negative potential effects or influences of computerization on management factors is an important first step in improving the management of computer technologies.

An International Perspective

In order to increase the market for their products and services and thus gain increasing profitability and, where appropriate, shareholder value, corporations are penetrating the international market. This requires a number of adjustments and considerations by corporations, including consideration of standard of living, prevailing economies, government incentives and public policies, and practices in the country where products and services will be marketed. In addition, it is important to consider the characteristics of the individuals in the country where products and services will be utilized, such as differences in anthropometric (body size), social, and psychological considerations. Table 13 illus- trates with regard to computer products designed in the United States and the changes that need to be made for Chinese in Mainland China (Choong and Salvendy 1998, 1999; Dong and Salvendy 1999a,b). If both versions of the product were produced, both U.S. and Chinese users would be expected to achieve the fastest possible performance time with the lowest error rates. Identifying a local expert and following international standards (Cakir and Dzida 1997) can assist in identifying the modifications required to ensure a product is well suited to each international target market.